Zanzibar History

The History of Zanzibar: From Ancient Crossroads to Modern Autonomy

Chapter 1: Introduction and Early Human Settlements

Introduction

Zanzibar, a semi-autonomous archipelago off the coast of East Africa, is one of the most historically rich and culturally diverse regions on the African continent. Known for its white sandy beaches, aromatic spice farms, and the labyrinthine alleys of Stone Town, Zanzibar holds a central place in the story of the Indian Ocean world. But its beauty is matched by a layered, often turbulent history—one shaped by waves of migrations, trade, empire, slavery, revolution, and the enduring strength of the Swahili culture.

Located about 25–50 kilometers off the coast of mainland Tanzania, Zanzibar’s position in the Indian Ocean has long made it a strategic node for maritime trade routes connecting Africa, the Middle East, India, and, eventually, Europe. Over the centuries, Persians, Arabs, Indians, and Europeans have all left their imprint on Zanzibar’s people, language, architecture, and institutions.

The history of Zanzibar cannot be understood in isolation. It is deeply entangled with the broader developments along the Swahili coast and the Indian Ocean rim. From its earliest human inhabitants to its current role within the Republic of Tanzania, Zanzibar has stood as a crossroad of civilizations—where African traditions intertwined with Islam, where clove plantations thrived on the backs of enslaved Africans, and where colonial ambitions collided with indigenous resistance.

In this essay, we will explore the long arc of Zanzibar’s history in detail, beginning with prehistoric settlements, moving through centuries of trade and empire, addressing the horrors and legacies of the slave trade, examining colonial rule and revolution, and culminating in the modern era. Through this lens, we seek not just to recount events, but to understand how Zanzibar’s unique identity has emerged and endured across time.

Early Human Settlements: The First Zanzibaris

The earliest known evidence of human presence on Zanzibar dates back more than 20,000 years. Archaeological research, particularly at the Kuumbi Caves on Unguja Island (the largest island of the Zanzibar Archipelago), has revealed signs of Later Stone Age occupation. Tools and remains suggest that small bands of hunter-gatherers used the caves seasonally, probably for shelter and resource gathering.

These early inhabitants were part of a broader population of Stone Age peoples who lived along the East African coast and interior. While not much is known about their specific languages or customs, their presence marks the beginning of human activity on the islands.

By around 1000 BCE, the first wave of Bantu-speaking peoples began arriving from the African interior. These communities, part of a vast linguistic and cultural migration across sub-Saharan Africa, brought with them knowledge of agriculture, ironworking, and animal husbandry. Over time, they began to settle more permanently on the islands, forming small, kinship-based villages and engaging in subsistence farming, fishing, and trade with nearby coastal groups.

It was during this early period that the foundations of Swahili culture began to emerge. “Swahili” itself comes from the Arabic word sawāhil, meaning “coasts,” and refers to the people, language, and culture of the East African coastal belt. By the first centuries CE, a hybrid African maritime culture had developed, combining indigenous Bantu roots with influences brought by seafaring traders from Arabia, Persia, and India.

The Birth of the Swahili Coast: Trade and Cultural Fusion

From around the first century CE, the Swahili coast—stretching from modern-day Somalia in the north to Mozambique in the south—began to appear on the maps of Greco-Roman, Arab, and later Chinese traders. Zanzibar, while not the largest or wealthiest settlement, was ideally positioned as a stopover point for ships navigating the monsoon-driven trade routes.

With the seasonal winds of the Indian Ocean, ships would travel from Arabia and the Persian Gulf to East Africa during the northeast monsoon, and return home with the southwest winds. This cyclical maritime system formed the backbone of what became one of the most vibrant intercontinental trade networks of the ancient world.

Zanzibar’s early ports became places of exchange for ivory, tortoise shells, rhinoceros horn, timber, and later, slaves. In return, the islanders received beads, cloth, ceramics, glassware, and other manufactured goods. It was not merely goods that were traded—ideas, technologies, and religious beliefs also crossed the seas.

The Introduction of Islam and Persian Influence

One of the most significant developments during this early period of trade was the introduction of Islam to Zanzibar. While there is no consensus on the exact date of Islam’s arrival, most scholars agree that Arab and Persian traders brought the religion with them between the 7th and 10th centuries CE. The early Muslim presence in Zanzibar was not marked by conquest but rather by commercial and cultural exchange.

By the 10th century, Islam had taken root in many of the urban coastal settlements of East Africa, including Zanzibar. The religion offered a unifying cultural and legal framework for trade, diplomacy, and governance, and its adoption by local elites helped facilitate integration into the broader Islamic world. Mosques were built, Arabic script began to be used for writing Swahili, and Islamic dress, dietary laws, and practices became more widespread.

During this period, Persian influence was also significant. The Shirazi myth, a widespread narrative among Swahili communities, claims that many of the ruling families along the coast were descended from Persian princes who settled in East Africa. While largely legendary, this story reflects the real historical ties between the Persian Gulf and East Africa, and many of Zanzibar’s oldest families trace their heritage to these early immigrants.

Urbanization and the Growth of City-States

By the 11th and 12th centuries, Zanzibar was part of a growing constellation of city-states along the Swahili coast. These urban centers—such as Kilwa, Mombasa, Malindi, and eventually Zanzibar Town—were politically independent but culturally linked through shared language, religion, and trade networks.

These cities were cosmopolitan places, with residents of African, Arab, Indian, and Persian descent living side by side. The Swahili language, a Bantu tongue heavily influenced by Arabic, emerged as the lingua franca of the region and remains so to this day.

Zanzibar’s urban elite built stone houses, palaces, and mosques using coral rag and lime mortar. Society was stratified, with merchant families forming the upper class, while artisans, laborers, and enslaved people filled the lower rungs. Despite these inequalities, Swahili society maintained a degree of fluidity and openness, allowing for assimilation and upward mobility through trade, marriage, or religious scholarship.

Chapter 2: Portuguese and Omani Rule

(c. 1500–1800)

The Arrival of the Portuguese

The early 16th century marked a dramatic turning point in Zanzibar’s history with the arrival of the Portuguese, who were expanding their empire following Vasco da Gama’s voyage around the Cape of Good Hope in 1498. Their goal was to dominate the lucrative Indian Ocean trade and to secure a maritime route to the East Indies, bypassing Arab and Venetian intermediaries.

Zanzibar, with its well-established trade connections and strategic location, attracted immediate Portuguese interest. By 1503, Portuguese forces had made contact with the island, and by the 1520s, they had established dominance over Zanzibar and other Swahili coastal cities. Though they didn’t establish large settlements, they used force and diplomacy to assert control over trade.

Unlike the earlier Arab and Persian traders, the Portuguese imposed their will through military conquest and direct taxation. They constructed forts, including one on the main island of Unguja, and demanded tribute from local rulers. The most powerful of these Portuguese-controlled city-states was Kilwa, but Zanzibar was also drawn into their sphere of influence as a subordinate trading outpost.

Under Portuguese rule, Zanzibar suffered from disruption of established trade routes and the decline of local autonomy. Portuguese administrators prioritized their own commercial interests and sought to Christianize the region, though their religious impact was minimal and largely resisted by the Muslim population.

Local resentment toward the Portuguese grew, particularly because of their harsh taxation and violent reprisals against dissent. The Swahili city-states, once flourishing centers of trade and culture, declined economically and politically under Portuguese domination. This era also saw increased piracy and insecurity in the region, contributing to the overall decay of coastal prosperity.

The Omani Reassertion: Liberation and Conquest

The decline of Portuguese power along the Swahili Coast coincided with the rise of the Omani Sultanate, a powerful maritime kingdom centered in Muscat, Oman. By the late 17th century, the Omanis—under the Ya’arubi dynasty—began challenging Portuguese control in the Indian Ocean.

In 1698, after a long campaign that included a siege of Fort Jesus in Mombasa, the Omanis drove the Portuguese out of most of their East African holdings. This victory marked the beginning of a new era for Zanzibar, one that would see the island transformed into a crucial outpost of Arab-Islamic influence and empire.

Initially, Omani control over Zanzibar was indirect. The local Swahili elites retained some autonomy, but they now paid tribute to the Sultan of Oman. Over time, however, the Omanis consolidated their power more firmly. They began settling in greater numbers, intermarrying with local populations, and establishing political and commercial dominance. The Swahili coast once again flourished under Muslim rule, and Zanzibar re-emerged as a vibrant trading hub.

The Rise of the Zanzibar Sultanate

By the early 19th century, Zanzibar had become the economic jewel in the crown of the Omani Sultanate. In 1832, Sultan Seyyid Said of Oman moved his court from Muscat to Zanzibar, recognizing the island’s growing importance in regional and international trade. His decision would have profound implications for Zanzibar’s future.

Under Seyyid Said, Zanzibar evolved into an imperial capital, a center of administration, diplomacy, and commerce. The Sultan actively promoted the growth of the clove industry, introducing plantations that would eventually make Zanzibar the world’s largest producer of cloves. These plantations, however, depended on enslaved African labor, and the island soon became a focal point in the East African slave trade.

The Sultanate of Zanzibar was now a semi-independent state, with political authority rooted in the royal family but supported by a complex network of Arab, Swahili, and Indian merchants. The royal court, based in Stone Town, oversaw a diverse population and cultivated diplomatic ties with Britain, France, and the United States.

The Arab-Swahili Slave Trade

One of the darkest chapters in Zanzibar’s history occurred during the 18th and 19th centuries with the expansion of the slave trade. Though slavery had existed in East Africa for centuries, it reached new heights under Omani rule. Zanzibar became both a market for enslaved Africans and a key transit point for the wider Indian Ocean slave trade.

Slaves were captured or purchased in the African interior—particularly from present-day Tanzania, Congo, and Mozambique—and marched in chains to the coast, often enduring horrific conditions. Many perished along the way. Those who survived were sold in Zanzibar’s infamous slave markets, with some retained for local use on clove plantations and in domestic service, while others were shipped to Arabia, Persia, or even India.

The slave markets of Zanzibar were among the busiest in the region. European visitors, missionaries, and anti-slavery campaigners who witnessed them were often shocked by the brutal conditions. An estimated 50,000 slaves passed through Zanzibar annually at the trade’s peak in the mid-19th century.

Despite growing global condemnation, the Sultanate resisted calls to abolish slavery, as it formed the economic foundation of Zanzibar’s prosperity. It was not until the British began exerting pressure—especially through treaties in the 19th century—that steps were taken to suppress the trade.

Zanzibar’s Multicultural Society

By the late 18th century, Zanzibar’s society had become a cosmopolitan mosaic, reflecting its long history of interaction and trade. The population included:

Africans: The majority, including both free Swahili-speaking citizens and enslaved people from the mainland interior.
Arabs: Mostly Omani settlers who held political power and controlled much of the land.
Indians: Primarily merchants from Gujarat and Goa, involved in trade, finance, and shopkeeping.
Persians and Comorians: Minor but influential communities tied by historical and religious connections.

Intermarriage was common, particularly between Arab men and African women. This led to the emergence of a culturally blended elite, fluent in Swahili and often Muslim. This multicultural character remains one of Zanzibar’s most enduring features.

Cultural and Architectural Legacies

Under Omani rule, Stone Town—Zanzibar’s capital—began to take its present shape. Narrow alleys, coral-stone buildings with carved wooden doors, arched windows, and enclosed courtyards created a unique urban landscape that blended Arab, African, Persian, and Indian styles. Mosques, merchant houses, caravanserais, and palaces dotted the city.

Stone Town became a cultural and intellectual center, where poetry, Quranic scholarship, music, and oral storytelling thrived. Trade networks brought not just goods but also knowledge and innovation, reinforcing Zanzibar’s position as a regional hub of Islamic culture.

Political Tensions and British Involvement

As Zanzibar’s wealth grew in the 19th century, so too did interest from European powers. The British, in particular, were eager to secure control over the Indian Ocean trade, suppress the slave trade, and limit French influence in East Africa.

In 1822, the Moresby Treaty between Britain and the Sultan of Muscat was signed, banning the export of slaves to Christian countries. Later treaties, such as the Frere Treaty of 1873, further restricted the trade and established British oversight.

While these treaties marked the beginning of the end of legal slavery in Zanzibar, enforcement was uneven, and clandestine trade continued. The British, though initially acting as advisors and treaty-makers, gradually expanded their political influence, laying the groundwork for Zanzibar’s later transformation into a British protectorate.

Chapter 3: The Sultanate of Zanzibar and the Slave Economy (1800–1890)

The Establishment of the Zanzibar Sultanate

The 19th century marked the height of Zanzibar’s power, wealth, and regional influence under the rule of the Omani Sultanate. The most pivotal figure during this era was Sultan Sayyid Said bin Sultan al-Busaid, who ruled both Oman and Zanzibar from 1806 until his death in 1856. His reign transformed Zanzibar from a peripheral trading post into a key political and commercial center in East Africa.

Recognizing Zanzibar’s strategic position and economic potential, Sultan Said made the bold decision in 1832 to shift his court from Muscat to Zanzibar. This move elevated the island to the capital of the Omani Empire’s African territories, reinforcing its importance in regional politics. The decision also symbolized the Sultan’s commitment to consolidating power and expanding Arab influence along the East African coast.

Said established an elaborate court in Stone Town, building palaces, fortifications, and administrative offices. He imported Arab administrators and advisors while allowing local Swahili elites and Indian merchants to flourish under his patronage. His policies encouraged the expansion of trade, plantation agriculture, and religious scholarship.

The Clove Boom and Plantation Economy

One of Sultan Said’s most significant economic legacies was the establishment of large-scale clove plantations, which would soon dominate Zanzibar’s economy. Clove trees, originally native to Indonesia, were introduced to Zanzibar in the late 18th century. Under Said’s direction, they were cultivated systematically and became the island’s principal export by the mid-19th century.

The Sultan distributed large tracts of fertile land to Omani aristocrats and loyalists, who developed plantations primarily on the main island of Unguja. The climate and soil conditions were ideal, and Zanzibar soon became the largest producer of cloves in the world.

However, this agricultural boom came at a tremendous human cost. The clove plantations were built and maintained through the extensive use of slave labor. Thousands of enslaved Africans were brought from the mainland interior to work under brutal conditions. The plantation system was organized in a quasi-feudal manner, with Arab landowners exercising near-total control over their slaves, who lived in poor conditions and were subjected to harsh punishments.

While some slaves managed to escape into the interior—where they formed independent communities known as “shambas”—the majority remained trapped within the island’s plantation economy. This labor system provided the foundation for Zanzibar’s commercial success while sowing the seeds of deep social divisions that would persist for generations.

The Zanzibar Slave Trade

Zanzibar’s rise as an economic hub was inseparable from its role in the Indian Ocean slave trade, which expanded dramatically in the 19th century. Though slavery had existed on the island for centuries, the scale and scope of the trade during this period were unprecedented.

Zanzibar became the central market and transit point for slaves captured across East Africa. Slave caravans, organized by Swahili and Arab traders, penetrated deep into the African interior—reaching as far as Lake Tanganyika and beyond. Captured men, women, and children were forced to march for weeks or months to the coast, many dying from hunger, disease, or abuse along the way.

Once in Zanzibar, slaves were sold in public markets, most notoriously at the site of today’s Anglican Cathedral in Stone Town, which was built atop the former slave market after abolition. Prices varied based on age, sex, and perceived physical attributes. Enslaved individuals were often subjected to physical examinations before being sold like livestock.

Most slaves were either retained on Zanzibar’s plantations or shipped to markets in the Persian Gulf, Arabia, and India. Some were used as domestic servants in the homes of wealthy Arab and Indian families. Others were conscripted into labor gangs or used in military and caravan activities on the mainland.

At the trade’s height, as many as 50,000 slaves passed through Zanzibar each year. Historians estimate that hundreds of thousands of Africans were enslaved and trafficked through the island over the 19th century, with incalculable loss of life and suffering.

Trade, Wealth, and Cosmopolitanism

Despite its reliance on slavery, Zanzibar was also known for its cosmopolitanism, wealth, and sophistication during this period. The island attracted merchants, scholars, and diplomats from across the Indian Ocean world.

The economy was not solely reliant on cloves and slaves. Zanzibar was also a major hub for the trade of ivory, gum copal, spices, textiles, and precious metals. Indian merchants, especially from Gujarat, played a key role in financing trade expeditions and operating shipping networks. Many of these traders were Ismaili or Hindu, and the Indian community remains prominent in Zanzibar today.

The city of Stone Town reflected this cultural blend. Its architecture combined Arab, Swahili, Persian, Indian, and even European styles. Lavish stone mansions, ornately carved doors, and intricate balconies reflected the wealth of elite merchant families. Public squares, mosques, Hindu temples, and small churches coexisted in close quarters.

Zanzibar’s ruling class cultivated ties with major powers, including Britain, France, and the United States. Sultan Said signed commercial treaties with all three, opening the island’s ports to foreign merchants and missionaries. The American consulate established in 1837 was the first U.S. diplomatic mission in Africa.

The Decline of the Slave Trade and British Pressure

As the 19th century progressed, international pressure to end the slave trade began to mount. Britain, having abolished slavery in its own empire in 1833, took the lead in diplomatic and naval efforts to suppress the East African trade.

In 1822, the British and Sultan Said signed the Moresby Treaty, which prohibited the export of slaves to Christian territories. However, enforcement was weak, and clandestine trading continued. Additional treaties followed:

The Hamerton Treaty (1845) banned the export of slaves to any foreign country.
The Frere Treaty (1873) mandated the closure of Zanzibar’s slave markets and criminalized slave trafficking throughout the Sultanate’s territories.

To enforce these treaties, Britain dispatched naval squadrons to patrol the East African coast, intercept slave ships, and liberate captured individuals. British consuls and missionaries established a presence in Zanzibar, lobbying for further reforms.

Although these efforts eventually succeeded in curbing the slave trade, slavery itself persisted on the island. It was not until 1897, under direct British influence, that slavery was formally abolished in Zanzibar. Even then, many former slaves continued to work on plantations under exploitative conditions.

Succession Crisis and the Partition of Empire

Sultan Said’s death in 1856 triggered a succession crisis between his sons, Majid and Thuwaini. This conflict eventually led to the division of the empire into two parts:

Thuwaini ruled the Omani heartland from Muscat.
Majid became the first Sultan of Zanzibar, ruling independently from 1856 to 1870.

This division solidified Zanzibar’s status as a separate political entity, though still deeply connected to Oman and other parts of the Indian Ocean world. Sultan Majid and his successors worked to modernize the island’s administration and expand trade, but they faced increasing interference from European powers.

The Encroachment of Colonial Powers

The late 19th century saw the rapid expansion of European colonialism in Africa, often referred to as the “Scramble for Africa.” Zanzibar, though not formally colonized at first, found itself increasingly subordinate to British interests.

In 1890, Britain and Germany signed the Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty, which ceded control of the island to Britain in exchange for German gains elsewhere. As a result, Zanzibar became a British protectorate, though it retained its Sultan as a nominal ruler.

This marked the end of Zanzibar’s independence and the beginning of a new chapter in its colonial history—one that would bring new challenges, including modernization, political struggle, and eventual revolution.

Chapter 4: British Protectorate and the Road to Revolution (1890–1964)

(Approx. 1300 words)

The Establishment of the British Protectorate (1890)

Zanzibar officially became a British protectorate on 1 July 1890, following the Heligoland–Zanzibar Treaty between Britain and Germany. Under this agreement, Germany recognized British dominance in Zanzibar in exchange for Heligoland and parts of East Africa. Although Zanzibar retained a local sultan as the nominal head of state, real power was now held by the British Resident Minister, who represented British interests and governed the island’s foreign affairs, military, and administration.

The protectorate status allowed Britain to exert imperial control without full annexation. The Sultan’s power was sharply reduced, and British advisors effectively ruled the territory, directing policy on matters ranging from slavery to taxation and education. While Britain claimed it would preserve local customs, it was clear that Zanzibar was now part of the British Empire in practice, if not in name.

Sultan Hamad and the Briefest War in History

The symbolic nature of the Sultan’s role was highlighted in 1896 during a succession dispute that led to the Anglo-Zanzibar War—the shortest war in recorded history, lasting approximately 38 minutes.

When Sultan Hamad bin Thuwaini, who was pro-British, died suddenly in August 1896, his cousin Khalid bin Barghash seized power without British consent. Britain, determined to install a more compliant figure, issued an ultimatum demanding Khalid step down.

Khalid refused, barricading himself in the palace. On the morning of 27 August 1896, British warships in the harbor opened fire on the palace. The shelling quickly overwhelmed Khalid’s forces; within minutes, the palace was in ruins and over 500 of Khalid’s supporters were dead or wounded. Khalid fled to the German consulate and was later smuggled to German East Africa.

The British installed Sultan Hamoud bin Mohammed, who ruled as a puppet monarch under close British supervision. The brief conflict cemented British control over Zanzibar and demonstrated the futility of resistance under the protectorate regime.

Social and Economic Changes Under British Rule

British colonial policy in Zanzibar focused primarily on stability, commerce, and imperial interests. While the British were not as heavily invested in Zanzibar as in Kenya or India, they still implemented significant changes in the island’s governance, economy, and society.

Slavery and emancipation became major issues early in the protectorate. While the slave trade had been abolished, slavery itself still existed in the form of domestic servitude and plantation labor. Under British pressure, Sultan Hamoud issued a decree in 1897 abolishing slavery in Zanzibar. Compensation was offered to slave owners, but little was done to provide land or support to the newly freed population.

The legacy of slavery lingered. Many freed individuals remained in subordinate social positions, and the Arab elite continued to dominate landownership and economic power. Racial and class divisions deepened, with Arabs at the top, Indians in commercial middle roles, and Africans making up the rural and urban working classes.

The British administration focused on infrastructure development and the modernization of commerce. They built ports, roads, hospitals, and schools, though access was limited and often segregated. The clove industry, still the backbone of the economy, was maintained under colonial oversight.

British authorities also discouraged large-scale political organization, fearing unrest in the delicate social balance of Zanzibar’s multi-ethnic society. Political dissent was closely monitored, and local leaders were co-opted into the colonial administration.

The Role of Indian and Arab Elites

Zanzibar’s Indian community, primarily composed of Gujarati Hindus, Ismaili Muslims, and Goans, played a crucial role in the protectorate economy. Indians controlled much of the retail trade, moneylending, and shipping businesses, acting as intermediaries between Arab landowners and African laborers.

While some Indians accumulated significant wealth and status, they also faced resentment from both Arabs and Africans. British colonial policy often reinforced ethnic divisions by favoring certain communities in education and employment, further entrenching inequalities.

The Arab elite, descendants of Omani settlers, retained significant landholdings and influence. Though they lost formal sovereignty, they remained a powerful force in Zanzibar’s social and economic life. Many served in colonial advisory councils, and some aligned with British interests to preserve their status.

Meanwhile, Africans, the majority population, remained marginalized. Despite their contributions to the economy, most lived in poverty, lacked access to quality education or political representation, and faced systematic discrimination.

The Rise of Political Movements and Nationalism

By the mid-20th century, global trends of decolonization and African nationalism began to influence Zanzibar’s political landscape. Educated Africans, inspired by independence movements in Ghana, India, and Kenya, began organizing to challenge the entrenched power of Arabs and colonial officials.

In the 1950s, political parties emerged along ethnic and racial lines, reflecting Zanzibar’s divided society:

Zanzibar Nationalist Party (ZNP): Represented Arab and some Swahili interests. It favored a conservative approach to independence and sought to maintain Arab dominance.
Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP): Formed in 1957, it represented the African majority and called for radical reforms, including land redistribution, racial equality, and political sovereignty.
Zanzibar and Pemba People’s Party (ZPPP): Primarily based on Pemba Island, this party had mixed Arab-African support and often played a balancing role in politics.

Tensions escalated quickly. Elections in 1957, 1961, and 1963 were marred by accusations of gerrymandering, vote-buying, and communal violence. The British, struggling to maintain order, granted internal self-government but failed to resolve deep-rooted ethnic divisions.

In December 1963, Zanzibar was granted full independence as a constitutional monarchy under Sultan Jamshid bin Abdullah. The new government, dominated by the ZNP and ZPPP coalition, represented a minority Arab and elite Swahili constituency.

The African-majority Afro-Shirazi Party, which had won more votes but fewer seats due to gerrymandered districts, was excluded from power. This sparked widespread anger and fear of continued marginalization among Africans.

The Zanzibar Revolution (January 1964)

Barely a month after independence, on 12 January 1964, a revolution erupted in Zanzibar. Led by John Okello, a charismatic and militant Christian from Uganda who had gained influence in the ASP’s youth wing, thousands of armed Africans stormed police stations, government offices, and Arab-owned estates.

The revolution was swift and brutal. The Sultan’s forces were overwhelmed, and Sultan Jamshid fled into exile. The Revolutionary Council, dominated by ASP members, assumed control of the government. While the leadership initially emphasized unity, violence quickly spread.

Thousands of Arabs and Indians were killed, raped, or forced to flee. Properties were looted and burned. Although estimates vary, historians believe up to 20,000 people may have died in the initial weeks of the revolution. Entire communities were displaced, and the social fabric of Zanzibar was irrevocably changed.

The new government declared the People’s Republic of Zanzibar and Pemba, with Abeid Amani Karume, leader of the ASP, installed as president. Okello, who had styled himself as the “Field Marshal,” was soon sidelined and eventually exiled, as his erratic behavior alarmed other leaders.

Post-Revolution and the Union with Tanganyika

Following the revolution, Zanzibar faced international isolation and internal instability. Western governments condemned the violence and worried about the growing influence of Communist countries in the new regime, especially Cuba, East Germany, and the USSR, who offered aid and advisors.

To stabilize the situation, a deal was struck between Karume and Julius Nyerere, president of Tanganyika. On 26 April 1964, just three months after the revolution, Zanzibar and Tanganyika united to form the United Republic of Tanzania. While the union created a single sovereign state, Zanzibar retained significant autonomy, including its own president, legislature, and control over internal affairs.

The union was controversial and remains a subject of debate to this day. While it provided political stability and international recognition, many Zanzibaris felt that their unique identity and sovereignty were compromised.

Chapter 5: Zanzibar in the United Republic of Tanzania (1964–Present)

The Formation of Tanzania and Autonomy of Zanzibar

On 26 April 1964, just over three months after the Zanzibar Revolution, Zanzibar and Tanganyika entered into a political union, forming the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar, which was later renamed Tanzania on 29 October 1964. The union was largely brokered by President Julius Nyerere of Tanganyika and President Abeid Amani Karume of Zanzibar.

This merger was driven by multiple factors:

Regional stability: The revolution in Zanzibar had destabilized the region and worried neighboring countries and Western powers.
Cold War tensions: The new Zanzibari government had begun receiving assistance from the Soviet bloc, prompting fears of a potential “Cuban-style” socialist state in East Africa.
Security and diplomacy: Nyerere believed a union would dilute radicalism in Zanzibar and stabilize the broader region.

The union agreement granted Zanzibar semi-autonomous status, with its own president, House of Representatives, and legal system. However, certain key functions—foreign affairs, defense, and immigration—were placed under the jurisdiction of the union government based in Dar es Salaam (later moved to Dodoma).

Zanzibar thus became a semi-autonomous region within Tanzania, retaining a dual identity as both an integral part of the republic and a distinct cultural and political entity.

Abeid Karume’s Presidency (1964–1972)

As the first president of Zanzibar and vice president of Tanzania, Abeid Amani Karume led the post-revolution government with an authoritarian hand. He was instrumental in restructuring Zanzibari society along socialist lines, drawing inspiration from both local traditions and the ideologies of his mainland counterpart, Nyerere.

Key policies included:

Nationalization of land and property: The government seized all land and redistributed it, abolishing private ownership. This particularly affected former Arab and Indian elites.
Creation of state farms and cooperatives: Agriculture, especially the clove industry, was placed under state control.
Expansion of education and healthcare: Karume prioritized free education and rural health clinics to uplift historically marginalized African communities.
Suppression of dissent: Political opposition, real or imagined, was ruthlessly suppressed. Political parties were banned, and power was concentrated within the Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP).

Despite economic challenges, Karume’s era saw significant improvements in literacy, healthcare, and rural development. However, his leadership was marked by growing paranoia, repression, and a cult of personality.

On 7 April 1972, Karume was assassinated by members of the opposition, possibly linked to disillusioned revolutionaries and army officers. His death shook the island but did not derail the union or socialist policies.

The Rise of Seif Sharif Hamad and CCM Dominance

After Karume’s assassination, Aboud Jumbe assumed leadership and worked to solidify the union. In 1977, the ASP merged with Nyerere’s Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) to form Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM)—the ruling party of Tanzania.

While this merger symbolized political unity, many Zanzibaris felt increasingly marginalized. Political centralization in Dar es Salaam (and later Dodoma) and the CCM’s dominance sparked dissatisfaction, particularly among younger generations.

By the 1980s, a new generation of politicians began to challenge CCM hegemony. The most prominent was Seif Sharif Hamad, a former CCM official and reformist. Hamad advocated for greater transparency, multiparty democracy, and true autonomy for Zanzibar. He was expelled from CCM and helped found the Civic United Front (CUF) in 1992, after the reintroduction of multi-party politics in Tanzania.

Multiparty Elections and Political Tensions (1990s–2000s)

The 1990s ushered in a new era of political pluralism, but elections in Zanzibar were deeply contested and often marred by violence, irregularities, and government crackdowns. The main political rivalry emerged between:

CCM, representing the establishment and continuing Karume’s socialist legacy.
CUF, representing reformist voices and large portions of the urban and younger population.

Key elections:

1995: Zanzibar’s first multiparty election since independence. CCM narrowly won, but CUF claimed the results were rigged. Violent protests followed.
2000: The elections were again disputed. International observers reported widespread irregularities, and CUF boycotted parliament for a time.
2005: Tensions escalated with heavy police response to CUF demonstrations, leading to deaths and injuries.
2010: A Government of National Unity (GNU) was formed after a referendum supported a power-sharing arrangement between CCM and CUF. This was seen as a breakthrough for peace.

These decades were marked by a fragile balance between peace and political mistrust, with Zanzibar often more polarized than the mainland.

Economic Growth and Tourism

Despite political strife, Zanzibar experienced economic transformation, especially through tourism. Its beaches, historic sites, coral reefs, and rich culture made it one of East Africa’s most sought-after destinations.

Key developments:

Heritage tourism: Stone Town was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2000, attracting international investment and cultural preservation efforts.
Beach resorts: Areas like Nungwi, Kendwa, Paje, and Jambiani became hotspots for luxury tourism.
Ecotourism and spice tours: The island leveraged its history as a “spice island” to create agro-tourism experiences.

However, tourism also led to gentrification, cultural dilution, and environmental challenges. Locals often complained about being excluded from the economic benefits, while rising prices made life harder for many Zanzibaris.

The government sought to diversify the economy, but reliance on tourism and the decline of the clove industry made progress difficult.

2015 Election Crisis and Reconciliation

The 2015 presidential elections marked another low point. Initial results showed Seif Sharif Hamad of CUF leading, but before final tallies were announced, the Zanzibar Electoral Commission annulled the results, citing “irregularities.”

This move was widely condemned by observers and led CUF to boycott the 2016 re-run, allowing CCM’s candidate, Dr. Ali Mohamed Shein, to win uncontested. The political impasse deepened, and protests were again suppressed.

Zanzibar’s democracy appeared to be in crisis. Seif Sharif Hamad’s political future was uncertain, and CUF suffered internal divisions.

Recent Developments and Political Softening (2020–Present)

In the 2020 elections, CCM won again, with Hussein Mwinyi elected as Zanzibar’s president. Mwinyi, son of former Tanzanian President Ali Hassan Mwinyi, promised reform, reconciliation, and economic renewal.

Surprisingly, Mwinyi extended a hand of peace to the opposition, inviting Seif Sharif Hamad and his newly formed party, ACT-Wazalendo, into a Government of National Unity. Seif was appointed First Vice President of Zanzibar in a historic show of cooperation.

Unfortunately, Seif Sharif Hamad passed away in February 2021, just months into the new administration. His death marked the end of an era for Zanzibar’s opposition politics.

Under Mwinyi’s leadership, Zanzibar has focused on:

Post-COVID-19 economic recovery.
Expanding tourism investment.
Promoting unity and reducing political tension.
Strengthening anti-corruption efforts and transparency.

There have been signs of cautious optimism, though skepticism remains. Political repression, unequal development, and questions of autonomy still animate Zanzibari society.

Zanzibar’s Enduring Identity

Throughout its complex and often turbulent history, Zanzibar has maintained a strong sense of cultural identity—an amalgamation of African, Arab, Persian, Indian, and European influences. This identity is visible in its:

Language: Swahili, with deep Arabic roots.
Architecture: Coral-stone houses, carved wooden doors, and mosques in Stone Town.
Cuisine: A mix of Indian, Arab, and African flavors.
Music: Taarab, blending Arabic melodies with African rhythm.
Religion: Predominantly Muslim, but influenced by centuries of intercontinental exchange.

The island’s resilience, both socially and politically, stands as a testament to the enduring strength of its people.

Conclusion

The history of Zanzibar is a microcosm of global history—where the winds of empire, commerce, religion, and revolution all converge. From its ancient days as a Swahili trading post to its days under Omani and British rule, from slavery and clove plantations to socialism and tourism, Zanzibar’s story is one of transformation and survival.

It has endured slavery, colonization, revolution, political repression, and economic uncertainty, yet continues to redefine itself. Its culture—rich and syncretic—remains a beacon of the Swahili coast’s complexity and vibrancy.

Today, the challenges Zanzibar faces are no less serious: balancing autonomy within the Tanzanian union, ensuring political freedom, diversifying the economy, and managing the impact of globalization and climate change.

But history suggests that Zanzibar will continue to adapt, as it has always done. Whether it remains a peaceful jewel of the Indian Ocean or enters a new phase of transformation depends on the decisions its people and leaders make in the years ahead.